Blog

by Laura Darcey

The Covid-19 pandemic led to widespread closures of schools and implementation of stay-at-home orders aimed at curbing the spread of the infectious disease. These measures significantly disrupted learning outcomes for students around the world.

Loss of learning was especially pronounced in poor, rural communities with limited ability to participate in remote learning. An estimated 49% of learners in Eastern and Southern Africa had no access to digital learning due to the absence of electricity, electronic devices, and internet connections ¹ . Prior to Covid, historical data from past pandemics had already revealed an inequality: girls are three times less likely to engage in home-based learning than boys.  This is due to the already disproportionate burden of girls’ household chores and caregiving responsibilities that are intensified during a pandemic, further limiting their ability to participate in remote learning activities, even for girls who might have otherwise been able to access digital lessons ² .

But there is a substantial body of evidence that the Covid-19 pandemic did more than limit girls’ access to education and learning opportunities. School closures also limited girls’ social protection and access to essential services, leaving them vulnerable to FGC, sexual violence, teen pregnancy, child marriage, and ultimately, school drop-out.

The impact of school closures during Covid-19

Female Genital Cutting (FGC) – The Covid-19 lockdown was seen as an opportune time for girls to undergo FGC at home with ample time for healing away from the eyes of those who may disapprove. The protection of school had disappeared. Data gathered by UNICEF in nine Kenyan counties showed a 121% increase in the number of FGC cases in 2020 compared to the same period in 2019 ³ .  The effect of school closures was further compounded by pandemic-related travel restrictions, which prevented government officials, law enforcement, and humanitarian workers from travelling to implement child protection programmes.

Sexual Violence – The pandemic significantly raised the risk of violence and abuse against girls, with economic stressors and the lack of alternative spaces or shelters increasing girls’ vulnerability.  According to the national protection hotline, sexual violence against girls surged by 230% during the Covid-19 lockdown ⁴ .

Teen pregnancy – Kenyan adolescent girls who were forced out of the classroom for 6 months during Covid-19, were twice as likely to become pregnant than their contemporaries who finished school in 2019 ⁵ . Cut off from resources at school and under economic stress, many girls struggled to access basic hygiene requirements such as water, soap, and menstrual products.  This created a ‘shadow pandemic’ where Kenyan girls were preyed on by older men with spare cash and exchanged sex for money to buy hygiene products. Within the first three months of lockdown,152,000 pregnancies were reported in Kenya, an estimated 40% increase of prior levels ⁶ .

Child Marriage – In times of financial insecurity, girls will be married off to lessen a household’s economic burden and provide immediate relief in the form of a dowry. Financial insecurity can also lead girls to engage in practices that leave them vulnerable to teenage pregnancy. Engaging in sex outside of marriage is often frowned upon and deemed socially unacceptable, so an unplanned pregnancy may drive families to organise a marriage to protect the family honour.  This effect is so extreme, that in times of increased levels of sexual assault, families will pre- emptively marry off their daughters hoping to protect them from assaults and ‘preserve their honour’ ⁷ .

Following the pandemic, many girls did not return to the classroom. When schools reopened, 99% of boys aged 10-14 reported back to the classroom, compared with 95% of girls.  But the disparity was much greater amongst older students, with 74% of boys aged 15-19 returning to school, but only 63% of girls ⁸ . High rates of dropout were driven by pregnancy and early marriage in girls, and the taking on of income- generating activities in boys, with both groups’ rates exacerbated by families’ inability to pay expensive school fees.

Individual and Generational Benefits of Educating Girls

The World Bank has recognised that there is no investment more effective for achieving economic development goals than educating girls.  When girls stay in school, they acquire skills and knowledge that can help them succeed in the labour force. School attendance boosts girls’ self-esteem, agency, financial literacy and problem-solving abilities. Educated girls grow into educated women who can better care and advocate for their children, leading to generational benefits. But fundamentally, staying in school has been found to be a protective factor against child marriage, pregnancy and FGC.

Education delays girls’ entry into the labour market, instead developing their skills, boosting their self-esteem and teaching them about their reproductive health. Educated girls are more likely to delay marriage, and marry someone who is closer to them in age, as well as educated. Girls with a secondary education are 6 times less likely to marry as children. It also protects girls from teenage pregnancy, with research showing that teenage girls with no education or only primary education are more likely to begin childbearing in their teens compared to those with secondary education ⁹ .

School attendance can also protect girls from FGC. In countries where FGC is practised, 54% of women with no education report they have undergone the procedure, compared to 19% of women who have some level of secondary education ¹⁰ . Additionally, according to the International Centre for Research on Women, education can protect the next generation from FGC, as women’s support for FGC decreases as their level of education increases ¹¹ .

Educating women generates improved outcomes for their children. With delayed birth, women are more mature when they become mothers, meaning they are better able to care for their children, reducing the child mortality rate. In fact, children of literate mothers are 50% more likely to live past age 5 ¹² .

With education out of reach, not only is the personal development of women curtailed, but their ability to acquire skills and qualifications necessary for future employment opportunities is halted.  Women are trapped in a cycle where lack of learning begets further financial hardship, making it more difficult for them to send their own children to school, further perpetuating the intergenerational transmission of poverty.

Free Education at NTS

NTS has worked strategically to eliminate barriers to girls in our community attending school presented by poverty.  First, school is free with no tuition, hidden fees, supplies or teacher “gifts” demanded.  Second, every student is provided with 3 full meals daily, meaning the money girls would have earned as day labourers is covered in the food they are provided.  Finally, we work closely with each family to eliminate any obstacles they may find throughout the three years.  As a result, our female students stay at NTS, completing their education and moving into economically rewarding careers.

References

¹ Oulo, Understanding the Barriers to Girls’ School Return: Girls’ Voices from the Frontline of the COVID-19
Pandemic in East Africa,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352740245_Understanding_the_Barriers_to_Girls%27_School_Ret
urn_Girls%27_Voices_from_the_Frontline_of_the_COVID-19_Pandemic_in_East_Africa
² Oulo
³ Vice, Female Genital Cutting is on the rise during COVID in Kenya,
https://www.vice.com/en/article/xgzm83/female-genital-cutting-is-on-the-rise-during-covid-in-kenya
⁴ The New York Times, These Girls are Being Cut and Married in Droves,
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/10/opinion/kenya-covid-child-marriage.html
⁵ SciDev, Kenyan Lockdowns ‘Led to Pregnancies, School Dropouts’, https://www.scidev.net/sub-saharan-
africa/news/kenya-lockdowns-led-to-pregnancies-school-dropouts/
⁶ Munala, The Impact of Covid-19 on Girls from Low Income Urban and Rural Areas in Kenya,
https://assets.researchsquare.com/files/rs-1594640/v1/ea2df3c4-cf2f-4410-898c-
be61066a25ff.pdf?c=1652561510
⁷ Educational Development Trust, Emerging Issues for Girls’ Education in East Africa,
https://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/bitstream/handle/20.500.12413/17074/EIR_48_Girls_Education_in_East
_Africa.pdf?sequence=12
⁸ Nation, Girls’ Access to Education Faced Challenges, but Covid-19 Made it Worse,
https://nation.africa/kenya/news/gender/covid-made-challenges-of-girls-access-to-education-worse-3490060
⁹ Somani, Importance of Educating Girls for the Overall Development of Society,
https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1225&context=jerap
¹⁰ Orchid Project, Intersection between female genital cutting and education
https://www.orchidproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Intersection-Between-Female-Genital-Cutting-
and-Education.pdf
¹¹ ICRW, Leveraging Education to end female genital cutting worldwide https://www.icrw.org/wp-
content/uploads/2016/12/ICRW-WGF-Leveraging-Education-to-End-FGMC-Worldwide-November-2016-
FINAL.pdf
¹² Somani

by Laura Darcey

Child marriage, defined as the marriage of a child under the age of 18 (but sometimes as young as 10), is common in Kenya, especially in poor households. 23% of Kenyan girls are married before their 18^th birthday, and 4% are married before the age of 15^[i]. Child marriage has been prohibited in Kenya since 1990 when the country ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Following this commitment, the country enacted various laws including the Children’s Act of 2001, the Sexual Offences Act of 2006 and the Marriage Act of 2014, all of which contribute to the criminalisation of the practice^[ii].

Yet, child marriage remains prevalent in Kenyan communities, driven by financial insecurity exacerbated by climate change, gender inequality, cultural tradition, and minimal law enforcement.

The Drivers of Child Marriage

Deeply ingrained cultural traditions mean many young Kenyan girls are seen as predestined for marriage and motherhood. Rooted in the belief of gender-based inferiority, the girl child is assigned roles for childbearing and domestic duties, while the boy child is seen as a future economic contributor. Rather than a contributor, a 2016 UNICEF study found that girls are more likely seen as an economic burden, or an asset to be traded for goods^[iii]. It is only a matter of time, therefore, until a girl is married off in exchange for a dowry, and numerous factors will push a family to make this choice before a girl reaches the legal age of 18.

Poverty can push a family to commit their underage child to marriage. In times of financial insecurity, girls will be married off to lessen a household’s economic burden and provide an immediate relief in the form of a dowry, comprising goods such as livestock, textiles and clothing, or jewellery. Globally, dowry practices are exacerbated in times of crisis and displacement, such as drought caused by climate change, and contribute to the higher prevalence of child marriage^[iv]. Families turn to child marriage to cope with the climate-related loss of crops or livestock.

Kenya is particularly vulnerable to climate shocks. It was recently ranked 36^th among all countries in vulnerability to climate change effects, and 152^nd in terms of preparedness to deal with these effects^[v]. In 2019, a large swarm of locusts flocked to Kenya after a bout of unusual weather patterns exacerbated by climate change. The locusts devoured crops resulting in catastrophic agricultural damage^[vi]. These events will become more common as climate change alters weather patterns and causes more extreme weather events, such as heavy rainfall and cyclones.

The increasing prevalence of drought also presents heightened challenges for women. Often tasked with collecting water, prolonged journeys to seek water sources exposes young girls to the increased risk of sexual assault resulting in unwanted pregnancies^[vii].  Additionally, poverty exacerbates the vulnerabilities of young girls, leading some to resort to transactional sex with older men in exchange for essential goods like soap or menstrual products^[viii]. Limited reproductive knowledge and inadequate access to birth control contributes to many girls finding themselves facing unplanned pregnancies.

Engaging in sex outside of marriage is often frowned upon and deemed socially unacceptable. An unplanned pregnancy can drive families to organise a marriage to protect the family honour and prevent negative perceptions associated with sex outside of marriage. This effect is so extreme, that in times of increased levels of sexual assault, families will pre-emptively marry off their daughter, hoping to protect her from such assaults and ‘preserve her honour’^[ix]. 

Denied Education  

With school attendance financially challenging for many families, they must choose which children to prioritise. Poor families believe that educating male children will generate greater benefits for the household and, in almost all cases, boys are prioritised ahead of girls^[x]. Sons will support parents in their old age. Daughters, when married, move to the husband’s home and become members of the husband’s family, lessening not only the family food burden but also any ongoing responsibility. As a result, among the poor, education for girls is frequently sacrificed in favour of preparing them for early marriage and childbearing.

Additionally, once married, a girl is far less likely to continue in school. Education is seen as an unnecessary investment of the girl’s life and the family’s financial resources, and married girls have many household tasks to tend to^[xi].  Marriage is frequently followed by pregnancy, which can result in a young girls’ exclusion from education due to social stigma or policies that restrict pregnant girls from attending school^[xii].

Negative Outcomes for Child Brides and Their Children

Child marriage is often preceded by Female Genital Cutting (FGC), deemed as a vital part of the transition from girlhood to womanhood. Also illegal in Kenya, FGC can have severe health implications that can plague young girls for the rest of their lives^[xiii]. In addition, women who bear children at a young age may face serious health consequences, experiencing higher rates of maternal mortality, a higher risk of obstructed labour, and pregnancy induced hypertension^[xiv].  Their young bodies are simply unprepared for childbirth.

Girls who are married young often lack status and power within their marriage and households, and are more likely to experience domestic violence, sexual abuse, and isolation from their family and community. With child brides deemed to have little use for education, and their domestic responsibilities as wives and mothers taking precedence, they are excluded from the classroom. This not only limits their opportunity for a prosperous life, but negatively impacts the future of their children. The children of better-educated women are more likely to survive infancy and childhood and go to school themselves, and to live longer, healthier lives^[xv]. Barring a girl from school perpetuates the intergenerational transmission of poverty.

Unconvincing Enforcement

Child marriage is illegal in Kenya, but some authorities do not see it as their job to prevent it. Birth and marriage registration are rarely produced or verified at the point of marriage. Furthermore, cases of child marriage that make their way to prosecution in courts are often beset by delays or incomplete proceedings. In addition, some communities are resistant to calls to stop child marriage as the practice aligns with customary practices and religious beliefs, and the enforcement of the law can encounter resistance form community and religious leaders^[xvi].   Ultimately, there are no specific child protection programmes in place that directly focus on protecting children from child marriage, and referral pathways for help are weak^[xvii].

How NTS makes a difference

NTS offers an alternative path for girls and their families, providing a route to a successful career that will benefit their entire family. By learning professional vocational skills such as tailoring and hairdressing, girls can earn a meaningful income, leveraging their talents and time more effectively by practising their trade in real employment rather than working exclusively in the home.

An NTS education demonstrates to girls that they can escape poverty and bring long-term financial stability to a family. In the short term, because they are fed three meals per day at school, it removes the need for parents to marry them to reduce food insecurity. By offering free education, NTS takes away the need for families to choose which child should attend school.

NTS also takes great care to ensure students are well-informed. In civics lessons, we cover students’ constitutional and legal rights, including the fact that child marriage is illegal in Kenya. And our child safeguarding policy ensures all students are aware of their rights to physical and emotional safety.  Additionally, gender equality lessons help to break down some of the patriarchal assumptions that can contribute to child marriage.

Our very own hairdressing teacher, Madame Irene Kwamboka, said “Because of our community’s poverty, girls can be married at 14, and often abused by their jobless husbands. I believe they can escape this trap with a profession that enables them to earn a living. Teaching professional skills to young women benefits the whole family.”

References

^[i] Girls Not Brides, Child Marriage Atlas, https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/atlas/kenya/#:~:text=Legal%20age%20of%20marriage%20%2D%2018%20years%2C%20no%20exceptions,-What’s%20the%20prevalence&text=23%25%20of%20Kenyan%20girls%20are,regions%20and%20among%20ethnic%20groups

by Laura Darcey

The threat of teenage pregnancy stalks the lives of Kenyan youth, curtailing their opportunities for a brighter future, funnelling them into a narrow life of motherhood and domestic responsibilities. 1 in 5 Kenyan teenage girls from 15-19 years-old are either pregnant or already a mother ¹ .  These early pregnancies are triggered by a lack of access to sexual and reproductive health services and education, poverty, child marriage and sexual violence.

Teenage pregnancy perpetuates the cycle of intergenerational poverty as young mothers struggle to complete their education and find a reliable income.  Their children grow up in poverty, often falling victim to the same struggles as their parents, perpetuating a cycle of poverty across generations.

The Kenyan government has attempted to address the issue of teenage pregnancy, but to little avail, with teenage mothers still facing social stigma, isolation, worsening poverty, and poor physical and mental health outcomes.

What can contribute to teenage pregnancy?

Inadequate Reproductive Education

Sex and reproductive health are considered taboo subjects in much of Kenya ² .  Parents are hesitant to discuss such topics with their children, and are often misinformed themselves. At school, children have classes in “Life Skills” in place of reproductive education in which teachers share messaging around abstinence, the consequences of having sex, how to prevent HIV and drug abuse. Schools do not provide accurate and age-appropriate information, leaving young people to turn to their similarly uninformed peers and social media for guidance ³ . When youth are simply told to abstain from sex, they know little about how to engage in safe sex. The 2022 Kenya Demographic and Health Survey revealed 41.6% of teenage girls between 15 and 19 in Kenya are sexually active but do not use any form of contraceptive ⁴ .  Challenges and fear around accessing contraceptives, combined with a lack of awareness about their necessity, contribute to unplanned pregnancies ⁵ . When messaging prioritises abstinence, the crucial knowledge of safe sex practices is often neglected.

Poverty

Poverty pushed families to make damaging decisions in order to survive. In the face of financial hardship some families resort to child marriage, marrying off a daughter in exchange for a dowry. While child marriage is illegal in Kenya, it remains prevalent in many communities driven by financial insecurity which continues to be exacerbated by climate change, gender inequality, cultural tradition, and minimal law enforcement ⁶ .

It is not long after marriage that many young girls fall pregnant and become teen mothers. This is often thanks to the power imbalance between a young bride and a much older groom limiting a bride’s ability to negotiate safe sex practices, and the societal and familial pressure for young brides to prove their fertility and fulfil traditional gender roles by bearing children early in the marriage ⁷ .

Many families living in poverty cannot afford to buy essential goods, leading girls to engage in transactional sex as a means of economic survival. They trade sex for access to basic necessities like pads, tampons, soaps and more. Sometimes sex is exchanged for as little as the 15 Kenyan Shillings (11 cents) required to pay for a daily shower in a public bathroom ⁸ .  With little reproductive knowledge, girls do not use safe sex pregnancies and often find themselves pregnant.

Compounding these issues is the prioritisation of male children’s education over their female siblings when families cannot afford to send all of their children to school. Not attending school puts girls at a higher risk of teenage pregnancy.
Out of School

Regularly attending school protects girls from teenage pregnancy, with research showing that teenage girls with no education or only primary education are more likely to begin childbearing in their teens compared to those with secondary education or above ⁹ .  Education delays girls’ entry into the labour market, and instead teaches girls self- esteem and (some) sexual education. Educated girls are more likely to delay marriage, and marry someone who is closer in age, and educated themselves.  All of these factors can delay childbearing ¹⁰ . When schools closed during the Covid-19 pandemic, the power of school attendance in deterring teenage pregnancy was made abundantly clear.  Within the first three months of the pandemic, 152,000 teen pregnancies were reported in Kenya, marking a 40% increase. Unable to attend school, girls were exposed to Female Genital Cutting, child marriage, elevated levels of sexual assault, and financial insecurity ¹¹ . Even when schools reopened, many girls were unable to return.  

What challenges do teens face once pregnant?

Barriers to Education

While education is one of the most important determining factors for a girls’ future, it is often the first thing she loses access to upon pregnancy. Despite legal provisions permitting continued schooling, headteachers often instruct girls to leave school, citing concerns about teasing, but also considering them a potential negative influence on other students ¹² .  

Approximately 13,000 Kenyan girls drop out annually due to pregnancy-related challenges. The Kenyan government has instituted legislation to support pregnant teenagers and young mothers staying in school, but these re-entry policies have notable flaws. For instance, the existing guidelines do not address what a school should do once a pregnancy is revealed, including the duration a student should remain in school and the timeline for returning after childbirth. There is little guidance or support for returning mothers who need to catch up academically. Furthermore, the programme lacks sufficient accountability and enforcement, leaving most schools to operate as they did before ¹³ .

In addition to lack of academic support, those teen mothers who do try to return to the classroom encounter significant social obstacles, including teasing and stigma from both teachers and peers. Emotional support and counselling are seldom provided. In addition, the financial burden of childcare, formula, and school attendance is often insurmountable making it nearly impossible for nursing mothers to return to school.  These challenges are exacerbated when teen mothers lack support and involvement from their parents and family ¹⁴ .

Health Implications

Women who bear children at a young age can face serious health consequences, experiencing higher rates of maternal mortality, a higher risk of obstructed labour, and pregnancy induced hypertension. Teenage mothers are also at high risk of experiencing nutritional deficiencies affecting their health and the development of the foetus.  Infants born to teenage mothers have a higher likelihood of preterm birth, low birth weight, and developmental issues, creating a cycle of health challenges that extend to the next generation ¹⁵ .  Additionally, teenage mothers are at higher risk of experiencing mental health challenges such as depression and anxiety which can be compounded by the stresses of early motherhood alongside social stigma ¹⁶ .

Girls who decide they do not want to go through with the pregnancy face challenges because access to abortion in Kenya is legally restricted. The law allows termination of pregnancy only under specific circumstances, such as if the life or health of the mother is in danger.  If young girls cannot access safe and legal abortion services, they may resort to clandestine methods, putting their health and lives at risk. “Underground” abortions are a major contributor to maternal mortality and morbidity globally, and can lead to severe complications such as infections, haemorrhage, and long-term reproductive health issues ¹⁷ .

Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty  

Teenage pregnancy perpetuates the intergenerational transmission of poverty, maintaining a cycle that affects not only the immediate generation but echoes through subsequent ones.

First, the educational trajectory of young girls is significantly disrupted. This curtails not only their personal development, but also restricts their ability to acquire skills and qualifications necessary for future employment opportunities. As a result, they are stuck in a cycle where lack of learning begets further financial hardships.  The absence of stable employment exacerbates their vulnerability, making it difficult to provide for and invest in themselves and their children.

Finally, societal stigma exacerbates all of these challenges for young mothers. They face judgement and exclusion, contributing to a sense of marginalisation and limiting their ability to participate in community life. In addition to losing an education, young
mothers are frequently denied the networks and support systems essential for economic and social mobility ¹⁸ .

Breaking this cycle requires efforts addressing the root causes, including comprehensive education, economic empowerment, and dismantling of societal stigmas surrounding teen pregnancies.
How does NTS help break this cycle?  

Sending a child to NTS alleviates the economic burden of a household, as each student is fed 3 nutritionally-complete meals each day.  Additionally, all female students receive training and reusable menstrual products from our partner, AFRIpads.  These services mean that our female students are much less likely to be taken out of school to be married off in exchange for a dowry, and they need not resort to engaging in transactional sex for menstrual products.
NTS provides comprehensive reproductive health education to all our students, both male and female. This means that the entire cohort knows how to engage in safe sex, and understands how to avoid unplanned pregnancies. Female students receive additional lessons with AFRIpads, teaching them about the female menstrual cycle and how to manage their reproductive health.
In the case that a student does fall pregnant, we provide support such that she experiences as few disruptions to her education as possible.  We have strict anti- bullying policies at NTS, which extend to ensure zero tolerance for teasing and discrimination against young mothers.  Our goal is to help pregnant students stay in school for as long as possible, and invite them back to school after giving birth.
Some girls need more time before returning to the classroom, so we offer them a spot to repeat the year if needed. During their time off, we provide them with food for themselves, and extra food to take home in the evening and on weekends for the baby.  In the future, we also hope to provide childcare for young mothers. 

References

¹ Kenyan National Council for Population and Development, Teenage Pregnancy and motherhoodsituation in Kenya, https://healtheducationresources.unesco.org/library/documents/teenage-pregnancy-and-motherhood-situation-kenya-county-burden-and-driving#:~:text=This%20policy%20brief%20looks%20at,to%20sexual%20and%20reproductive%20health
² UNFPA, Breaking the silence that led to a high teenage pregnancy in a Kenyan county, https://kenya.unfpa.org/en/news/breaking-silence-led-high-teenage-pregnancy-rate-kenyan-county
³ Devex, Is religious influence fuelling the teen pregnancy crisis in Kenya?, https://www.devex.com/news/is-religious-influence-fueling-the-teen-pregnancy-crisis-in-kenya-103080
⁴ The Elephant, Sex Education: Are we going enough?, https://www.theelephant.info/analysis/2023/09/19/sex-education-are-we-doing-enough/
⁵ The Elephant
⁶ Girls Not Brides, Child Marriage Atlas, https://www.girlsnotbrides.org/learning-resources/child-marriage-atlas/atlas/kenya/#:~:text=Legal%20age%20of%20marriage%20%2D%2018%20years%2C%20no%20exceptions,-What’s%20the%20prevalence&text=23%25%20of%20Kenyan%20girls%20are,regions%20and%20among%20ethnic%20groups

⁷ K4D, Early marriage, pregnancy, and girls school dropout, https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5c6ac30440f0b61a1afc3f7c/470_Early_Marriage_Preg
nancy_and_School_Dropout.pdf
⁸ The Guardian, ‘Sex for sanitary pads’: how Kenya’s lockdown led to a rise in teenage pregnancy, https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/dec/24/sex-for-sanitary-pads-how-kenyas- lockdown-led-to-a-rise-in-teenage- pregnancy#:~:text=%E2%80%9CSometimes%20sex%20was%20in%20exchange,promised%20them %20such%20small%20luxuries.%E2%80%9D
⁹ Kenyan National Council for Population and Development
¹⁰ Behrman, Does Keeping Adolescent Girls in School Protect Against Sexual Violence? https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1054139X16303548
¹¹ The New York Times, ‘These girls are being cut and married in droves’, https://www.nytimes.com/2020/12/10/opinion/kenya-covid-child-marriage.html
¹² Idinsight, Supporting teen mothers return to school: Lessons from Kenya, https://www.idinsight.org/article/what-works-to-support-teen-mothers-to-return-to-school-lessons-from-
kenya/
¹³ Idinsight
¹⁴ Idinsight
¹⁵ Kumar, Adolescent Pregnancy and Challenges in Kenyan Context, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5937539/
¹⁶ Congo, Pregnancy trends and associated factors among Kenyan adolescent girls and young
women pre- and post-COVID-19 lockdown, https://online.ucpress.edu/agh/article/1/1/1811306/194929/Pregnancy-trends-and-associated-factors-
among
¹⁷ KHRC, Teenage Pregnancy and Unsafe Abortion, https://www.khrc.or.ke/index.php/publications/69-teenage-pregnancy-and-abortion-case-study/file
¹⁸ Wiggins, Teenage Pregnancy and Social Exclusion, https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10003007/1/Wiggins2005TeenageParenthood.pdf

by Laura Darcey

Deeply ingrained traditional gender roles mean that despite recent efforts to reduce gender inequality, male and female children are treated differently in many communities in rural Kenya.

In 2021, Kenya was ranked 128th in the Gender Inequality Index by the United Nations based on reproductive health ¹ , empowerment and participation in the labour market. Progress towards gender equality has been hampered by the inadequate implementation of laws, inadequate funding, weak accountability, and the slow transformation of discriminatory and patriarchal gender norms, attitudes and practices ² . 

These differences start at birth. Many girls and boys in Kenya have reasonably separate upbringings, each learning the duties and obligations specific to their gender ³ .

The Girl-child

Girls are taught from a young age that their future is in the home.  They complete a significant list of chores each day, assisting their mother in caring for the home and younger siblings in preparation to one day run their own household. In rural areas that lack modern appliances, these chores can be extremely time consuming, with women and girls carrying water and firewood long distances to provide for their families ⁴ .

With her future in the home, a girl must be prepared to be wed.  The more appealing a girl is to potential husbands, the greater the dowry her family will receive. This is particularly important for families living in poverty, who may marry off a daughter to relieve their financial burden. The ideal wife is submissive, obedient and content to enjoy the status of her husband.  Young women who are too outspoken can be deemed unsuitable for marriage ⁵ .

When a daughter is married, she will leave the family home to live with the family of her new husband.  This means that any investment made in a daughter will ultimately benefit another household ⁶ . Kenyan girls are taught to excel in housework, take care of the children, fetch water, and keep their homes tidy, all of which benefit their families in the short-term and make them appealing as wives. Education is of little priority ⁷ .  

Barriers to Education

When money is tight, families are unlikely to prioritise educating their daughters. Not only will the future gains of their education benefit the family of her future husband, but there is an additional opportunity cost to their education.  Girls play such a fundamental role in completing household tasks, and providing care for younger siblings and the infirmed, some families cannot afford to have her time occupied elsewhere.  If a family sends their daughter to school, they must pay the fees associated with attendance, and forego the unpaid domestic labour their daughter contributes to the household ⁸ .

Education can also make a girl less attractive for marriage. In some regions, families wish to protect their daughters from contact with outside ideas and cultures. Parents can discourage ‘too much’ education, believing that an educated girl may find it more difficult to find a husband and be a good wife ⁹ .

The Boy-child

Boys are also prepared for their future, taught that they will one day be the leader of their household. A son will inherit his father’s role when he is old enough to do so, making decisions concerning the family structure and economy, leaving the daily household responsibilities to the women. While boys will have chores of their own, they grow up with fewer obligations than their sisters. They are not allowed to engage in traditionally female roles and are socialised to expect the women to work for them ¹⁰ .

Even when money is tight, families prioritise the education of the boy-child. Some parents believe that boys are more intelligent and that they will perform better in school 11 , but either way, parents will inevitably reap more of the returns when they invest in a son’s education as he will remain a part of their family even after marriage. Boys need to be prepared to become the man of the house and support their family financially ¹² , so their education is deemed more important.

But this responsibility can be burdensome for young boys, and many feel a huge weight on their shoulders from a young age.  They are taught that masculinity is closely associated with self-control and dignity. They are expected to not express any emotions or weakness, instead to be brave, and suffer in silence ¹³ .  Such responsibility can be difficult to deal with.

Gender Inequality in the Classroom

Schools have the power to either empower the girls in their classrooms or fall back on existing inequitable gender norms.
Girls receive constant messages about their place in society with their textbooks portraying women as passive, meek, nurturers of children and households, home- keepers and good wives to their husbands. Men are conversely portrayed as leaders, thinkers and creative minds. Boys are uplifted and inspired, while girls are told they have less potential than their male peers ¹⁴ .

A study found teachers claim to teach all pupils equally irrespective of gender.  Researchers saw that this assertion was false, as teachers gave male students favourable treatment. Nonetheless, a gender-blind approach to teaching is not appropriate in Kenyan schools, as female students face different challenges and have different needs to male students, and should be treated accordingly. Boys in the classroom tend to be more confident, raising their hands and actively participating in a lesson.  Girls were more likely to shy away from questioning and participation ¹⁵ . More work is therefore required from teachers to draw female students into classroom discussion. 

The same study interrogated the gender stereotypes held by male and female students. They described men as being intellectual, competent, strong and brave, while women were described as homely, warm and expressive, incompetent and passive ¹⁶ .  Students’ perceptions of girls’ capabilities are mouldable. When teachers encouraged and engaged girls, they began to believe in themselves, develop skills and were more likely to choose careers that offered them the best chances of employment.  Overcoming the unconscious bias that makes teachers discount the potential of female students is fundamental to girls’ continued success in school. When teachers do not use gender-sensitive pedagogy, girls shy away from their studies ¹⁷ .  

NTS and Empowerment

NTS is sensitive to challenges faced by our male and female students, helping all to stay in school and excel in their studies.
We work to maintain gender balance in our community, ensuring that girls represent 50% of students.  To achieve this, we work with parents in the community, actively encouraging them to send their daughters to NTS, framing it as a long-term investment in their family’s financial security. We also work with the Ugandan-based organisation, AFRIpads, providing girls with reusable menstrual products to ensure they do not miss school due to menstruation.
Inside the walls of NTS, we run gender-sensitive pedagogy training for all of our teachers, alongside safeguarding training.  This means that teachers are able to effectively teach our female students, and are trained to look out for signs of abuse.  This includes gender-based violence, as well as parental pressure for girls to get married or undergo Female Genital Cutting. Teachers also keep an eye on girls who may have been given too many chores and who are struggling to handle school and home responsibilities.  In this case, NTS works with parents to help girls find a balance.
We elevate female empowerment in all realms of the school.  We have a female president of the NTS Board, setting an aspirational example to all of our students. As we create our student government, we will feature women in leadership roles, communicating to all of our students that women can be seen as leaders, and must be treated equally at student government meetings.
And with this, comes the teaching of respect for both genders.  Men and women must develop mutual respect, understanding that as professionals and people, no one is superior to another.  This is the NTS culture.

References

¹ Human Development Reports, Gender Inequality Index, https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/thematic-composite-indices/gender-inequality-index#/indicies/GII
² UN Women, Kenya, https://africa.unwomen.org/en/where-we-are/eastern-and-southern-africa/kenya

³ Cultural Atlas, Kenyan Culture, https://culturalatlas.sbs.com.au/kenyan-culture/kenyan-culture-family 
⁴ Cultural Atlas
⁵ Chege, Girls’ and Womens’ Education in Kenya, https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/9574/Girls%20and%20womens%20education%20in%20Kenya.pdf?sequence=1
⁶ Warrington, “It makes more sense to educate a boy”: Girls ‘against the odds’ in Kajiado, Kenya,https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0738059311000927
⁷ Journal of International Women’s Studies, Towards Inclusive Advancement: An Analysis of Gender Equity in Kenya, https://vc.bridgew.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3070&context=jiws
⁸ Journal of International Women’s Studies
⁹ Chege
¹⁰ Antonsson, The Vulnerable Boy-Child, http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:1114987/FULLTEXT01.pdf
¹¹ Chege
¹² Jayachandran, The Roots of Gender Inequality in Developing Countries,https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w20380/revisions/w20380.rev0.pdf
¹³ Antonsson
¹⁴ Akinyi, School based factors affecting girls academic performance,https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1236803.pdf
¹⁵ Mukiri Limboro, Influence of Teacher Pedagogical Practices on Gender, https://ir-library.ku.ac.ke/bitstream/handle/123456789/24895/
¹⁶ Mukiri Limboro
¹⁷  Nabbuye, Gender-sensitive pedagogy, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/11/Hawah-Nabbuye-FOR-WEBSITE.pdf

by Laura Darcey

Female genital cutting (FGC) is a practice that involves the complete or partial removal of the external female genitalia for non-medical reasons. It is frequently practised on young girls and is a deeply entrenched tradition in many communities marking the transition from girlhood to womanhood.

In 2021, it was estimated that 21% of Kenyan women aged 15-49 had undergone FGC. Breaking down the most recent data by age group, however, shows that the prevalence for women aged 45-49 is 40.9%, while for the youngest age group it has fallen to 11.9%. This demonstrates that progress has been made in recent years, but FGC remains prevalent in Kenya.

FGC has been classified as a human rights violation by the United Nations . It can range from Type 1 – the partial or total removal of the clitoral glans, and/or the clitoral hood, to Type 3 – infibulation, the narrowing of the vaginal opening through the creation of a covering seal, which is formed by cutting and repositioning the labia minora or labia majora, sometimes through stitching.

There are no medical benefits associated with FGC, but many dangers. Immediate consequences of FGC can include excessive bleeding, swelling, fever, infection, urinary problems, shock and death. Long term complications can range from menstrual problems, sexual challenges, and psychological issues to an increased risk of childbirth complications, including fistula and new-born death .

Girls who have undergone FGC experience physical trauma and health complications that can make school attendance and learning difficult. In addition, FGC reinforces patriarchal structures, positioning young girls as prospective wives and mothers, rather than autonomous individuals. Following FGC, many girls become withdrawn as they face the short and long-term health complications associated with the procedure .

A Cultural Expectation

In some Kenyan communities, FGC is part of a larger coming-of-age ceremony wherein girls establish their identity and indicate that they are ready to be wed. The practice is driven by families who want their daughters to be accepted in the community and married into good families who can support them.

FGC is also performed for cosmetic reasons, as some men prefer the physical aesthetic of a woman who has been circumcised. A woman who has not undergone the procedure is sometimes viewed as ‘unclean’. Religious doctrine is also frequently used to justify the practice, although many religious scholars and international organisations maintain that FGC is endorsed by neither Christianity nor Islam.

The pressure to undergo the cut can be immense. An uncircumcised woman can be seen as devalued, unclean and cowardly. Women risk losing their social standing in the community, their prospects of finding a husband, and their worth as a bride. This can lead to women being marginalised and becoming both socially and economically vulnerable.

Surprisingly, the greatest supporters of the practice are often female elders. These women, who were circumcised as children, hold real political power. They are both practitioners who derive major income from performing the cutting , and are those who uphold the rituals and teachings associated with the practice. It is not uncommon for an elder to overrule the FGC preferences of a girl or those of her mother.

Poverty, Marriage and School Holidays

Financial shocks can increase the prevalence of FGC. If a family is undergoing financial hardship, they may look to marry off their daughter in exchange for a dowry, requiring her to undergo FGC in preparation. Currently, climate change is exacerbating these issues, creating more desperate families who are not willing to risk foregoing FGC, despite the waning popularity of the procedure .

The Covid-19 pandemic demonstrated that economic and social disruption can also lead to an increase in FGC. First, the usual processes to protect girls from FGC were halted during the pandemic, leaving girls vulnerable. Then, schools which have historically been a source of protection for school-aged girls at risk of FGC, were closed. Girls are most commonly cut during the Christmas holidays, which is the longest vacation of the year and allows them time to heal from the procedure without scrutiny from teachers or school administrators. During Covi, this school year protection disappeared. Data gathered by UNICEF in nine Kenyan counties shows a 121% increase in the number of FGC cases between January and November 2020 compared to the same period in 2019. The number of girls rescued from FGC dropped from 1,073 in 2019 to 994 in 2020 .

Additionally, pandemic-related travel restrictions prevented government officials, law enforcement, and humanitarian workers from travelling in regions with high FGC prevalence to implement child protection programmes.

Criminalising FGC

FGC was banned in Kenya in 2001 through the Children’s Act which stated “no person shall subject a child to female circumcision, early marriage or other cultural rites, customs or traditional practices that are likely to negatively affect the child’s life, health, social welfare, dignity or physical or psychological development”.

In 2011, Kenya criminalised FGC and set the goal of eliminating the practice by 2022, passing more explicit legislation – the Prohibition of Female Genital Mutilation Act, which imposed harsh penalties or perpetrators of FGC, including a minimum fine of 200,000 KSH (equivalent to $1,800), or three years imprisonment, or both . The Kenyan government also established an “Anti-Female Genital Mutilation and Child Prosecution Unit” with 20 prosecutors based in FGC practicing communities around the country to deal exclusively with eradicating the practice .

Yet, superstitions around FGC have been passed down from generation to generation, and indicate a certain way of life and belief system. The interference of government officials from far-off Nairobi, and aid workers from even further away in Europe and America, are distant and foreign compared to deeply rooted customs that permeate the everyday lives of the people and tribes that practise FGC .

The criminalisation of the practice has pushed it underground, making it harder for police officers and local officials to identify, arrest and prosecute those practising it. Additionally, many Kenyans, including law enforcement officials are unwilling to report FGC t in their communities. Often, it is their own grandmothers who are doing the cutting .

Education as Protection

FGC acts as a barrier to girls’ education, particularly when it serves as a precursor to child marriage. But education can also be a way to help girls escape FGC.

Accessing education creates a ‘network effect’ for girls, providing them with the life skills and the social space to introduce new concepts and giving room for the exchange of ideas. Education strengthens the agency and ability of girls to understand and exercise their rights. School-based interventions such as teacher training and curriculum on the risks of FGC as well as wider gender equality, raises girls’ awareness and strengthens their decision-making capabilities. School attendance can also protect girls from FGC. In countries where FGC is practised, 54% of women with no education report they have undergone FGC, compared to 19% of women who have some level of secondary education .

Access to education also has the potential to affect girls’ decisions when they have children of their own. Of women who underwent FGC, 85% of those who completed primary education believe the practice should stop, compared with 35% of those with no education . According to a report by the International Centre for Research on Women, women’s support for FGC decreases as her level of education increases. Education can protect the next generation of girls from FGC .

How Does NTS Help Combat the Practice?

NTS provides girls with an alternative path, empowering girls so that marriage is not their only option. By earning a professional degree, young women can secure their own financial future and get married once their careers are established and have reached personal financial stability. The professionals in our community model this for our female students, showing them what it looks like to be an empowered woman.

NTS also takes great care to ensure students are well-informed. We teach students about the dangers of FGC in reproductive health classes. In civics lessons, we cover students’ constitutional and legal rights, including the fact that FGC is illegal in Kenya. And our child safeguarding policy ensures all students are aware of their rights to physical and emotional safety. Additionally, gender equality lessons help to break down some of the patriarchal assumptions that can contribute to FGC.

Structurally, NTS has only short holidays. This means students are not exposed to long breaks from school, therefore reducing the chance they are whisked away for an FGC procedure. And other opportunities, as they arise, will be incorporated into the curriculum and general community social structure.

References

^[1] Health and Human Rights Journal, Eradicating Female Genital Mutilation / Cutting https://www.hhrjournal.org/2018/08/eradicating-female-genital-mutilation-cutting-human-rights-based-approaches-of-legislation-education-and-community-empowerment/

^[2] WHO, Female Genital Mutilation https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/female-genital-mutilation

^[3] WHO

^[4] WHO

^[5] Vice, Female Genital Cutting is on the rise during COVID in Kenya https://www.vice.com/en/article/xgzm83/female-genital-cutting-is-on-the-rise-during-covid-in-kenya 

^[6] ICRW, Leveraging Education to end female genital cutting worldwide https://www.icrw.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/ICRW-WGF-Leveraging-Education-to-End-FGMC-Worldwide-November-2016-FINAL.pdf 

^[7] Pulitzer Centre, Climate Change pushes girls in Northern Kenya back to early marriage and FGM https://pulitzercenter.org/projects/climate-change-pushes-girls-northern-kenya-back-early-marriage-and-female-genital 

^[8] Vice

^[9] Vice

^[10] Vice

^[11] UNAA, Why is female genital cutting practised, and what is being done to eliminate it? https://www.unaa.org.au/2021/02/06/why-is-female-genital-cutting-practised-and-what-is-being-done-to-eliminate-it/ 

^[12] Pulitzer Centre, Some Anti-FGM activists say law is not enough to end practice https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/some-anti-fgm-activists-say-law-not-enough-end-practice 

^[13] Orchid Project, Intersection between female genital cutting and education https://www.orchidproject.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Intersection-Between-Female-Genital-Cutting-and-Education.pdf 

^[14] UNICEF, The power of education to end female genital mutilation https://data.unicef.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/The-power-of-education-to-end-FGM_2022.pdf 

^[15] ICRW

by Natali Chinchaladze, NTS teen blogger

Why is math important?  It has been a key area of study even before formal schooling began. But what role does it play in the development of the human mind particularly during childhood?

At Stanford University, researchers have identified that there are three regions of the brain that predict improvement in math learning. Evidently, even the simplest math tasks “lit up” multiple regions of the brain simultaneously. Tanya Evans, the lead researcher, said, “It’s not just a math part of the brain; it’s a network of regions”. [1] This means that the whole brain is “awake” while concentrating on math solutions.

Now, what happens to adolescents who don’t receive or stop receiving education in math?  Researchers from the Department of Experimental Psychology at the University of Oxford and Loughborough University experimented on 133 students ages 14–18 and found a decrease in certain brain chemicals in a brain area that supports math, memory, learning, reasoning, and problem-solving. [2] This means that key functions never develop to their fullest, leaving minds under-developed in critical areas such as: problem-solving, organizing chaotic thoughts, rational thinking, critical thinking, logical reasoning, and the ability to order activities in steps.

In Kenya, this shows up in employer responses to surveys.  While most employers report being satisfied with the knowledge of graduates in different disciplines, they consistently report deficiencies problem-solving skills.  Problem-solving involves an ability to plan ahead and look at the consequences of different potential decisions.  If this critical skill isn’t learned in early years through math education, it becomes much harder to teach in later years and can lead to a stunted career future.

Nyamboyo’s Technical School is combatting this in our three years of intensive vocational training.  Students learn math in their studies. In addition, NTS is developing algebra and financial literacy programs that will be required of all students within the next year.  Our goal is to provide students with a training that opens their minds and gives them skills beyond math, using math as a tool for brain development.   

[1]https://www.bostonglobe.com/ideas/2015/09/17/this-your-brain-math/WMrjRMIyyBmtJCLhb5m2FM/story.html#bgmp-comments

[2]https://www.lboro.ac.uk/news-events/news/2021/june/lack-math-education-affects-brain-development/